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GCC警告选项例解

程序员是追求完美的一族,即使是一般的程序员大多也都不想看到自己的程序中有甚至那么一点点的瑕疵。遇到任意一条编译器警告都坚决不放过。有人会说:我们可以使用比编译器更加严格的静态代码检查工具,如splint。这个建议也很不错。不过lint工具使用起来较繁琐,有时候还需要记住一些特定符号并插入到你自己的代码中才行,门槛较高,这也让很多人止步于此。那么我们就从此放弃么?不,如今的编译器做得都很好,它可以帮助我们的找到绝大多数可能出现问题的代码,前提是你要学会控制编译器去找到这些问题代码,而熟悉编译器的警告选项恰恰是体现控制力的好方法。当你可以自如控制编译器警告输出的时候,你就算是'入道'了,同时你对语言的理解也更进一步了。

有人说:我就是用一个-Wall选项就可以了,一般选手可以这么做,而且他可以不知道-Wall会跟踪哪些类型的问题;但是高级选手是不会只使用-Wall的,他会把每条警告都研究的很透彻,会在Makefile中列出他想让编译器输出哪些类型的警告以替代-Wall,他会屏蔽掉那些对他的代码'毫无用处'的警告(很可能他使用了编译器对语言的扩展功能),他会有个和编译器交流的过程。

俗话说:'工欲善其事,必先利其器',一直在工作中使用GNU C编译器(以下简称GCC),这里对GCC的一些警告选项细致的分析,并列举几个简单的例子[注1]供分析参考。

1. -Wall集合警告选项
我们平时可能大多数情况只使用-Wall编译警告选项,实际上-Wall选项是一系列警告编译选项的集合。下面逐一分析这一集合中的各个选项:

[-Wchar-subscripts]
如果数组使用char类型变量做为下标值的话,则发出警告。因为在某些平台上char可能默认为signed char,一旦溢出,就可能导致某些意外的结果。

e.g.
/* test_signed_char.c */
#include

int main () {
        char    c       = 255; // 我们以为char是无符号的,其范围应该是[0,255]
        int     i       = 0;
        int     a[256];

        for (i = 0; i < 256; i++) {
                a[i] = 1;
        }

        printf("%d\n", c); // 我们期待输出255
        printf("%d\n", a[c][/c][/c]); // 我们期待输出1
        printf("%d\n", a[255]);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wchar-subscripts test_signed_char.c
test_signed_char.c: In function `main':
test_signed_char.c:13: warning: array subscript has type `char'

其输出结果:
-1
-4197476
1
从输出结果来看Solaris 9/gcc 3.2上char默认实现类型为signed char;在Windows XP/gcc-3.4.2上也是一样。
Windows上的输出结果:
-1
16 (随机值)
1

[-Wcomment]
当'/*'出现在 '/* … */'注释中,或者'\'出现在'// …'注释结尾处时,使用-Wcomment会给出警告。不要小觑这些马虎代码,它很可能会影响程序的运行结果。如下面的例子:

e.g.
/*
 * test_comment.c
 * gcc -Wcomment test_comment.c
 */
#include

int main() {
        int     a       = 1;
        int     b       = 2;
        int     c       = 0; // ok just test\
        c = a + b;

        /*
         * 这里我们期待c = 3
         * /* 但实际上输出c = 0
         */
        printf("the c is %d\n", c);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wcomment test_comment.c
test_comment.c:10:30: warning: multi-line comment
test_comment.c:15:12: warning: "/*" within comment

输出:
the c is 0

[-Wformat]
检查printf和scanf等格式化输入输出函数的格式字符串与参数类型的匹配情况,如果发现不匹配则发出警告。某些时候格式字符串与参数类型的不匹配会导致程序运行错误,所以这是个很有用的警告选项。

e.g.
/*
 * test_format.c
 */
#include

int main() {
        long    l       = 1;
        double  d       = 55.67;
        printf("%d\n", l);
        printf("%d\n", d);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wformat test_format.c
test_format.c: In function `main':
test_format.c:10: warning: int format, long int arg (arg 2)
test_format.c:11: warning: int format, double arg (arg 2)

输出:
1
1078711746

[-Wimplicit]
该警告选项实际上是-Wimplicit-int和-Wimplicit-function-declaration两个警告选项的集合。前者在声明函数却未指明函数返回类型时给出警告,后者则是在函数声明前调用该函数时给出警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_implicit.c
 */
#include

add(int a, int b) { //函数没有声明返回类型
        return a + b;
}

int test() {
        int     a       = 0;
        int     b       = 0;
        int     c       = 0;
        int     d       = 0;

        c = add(a, b);
        d = sub(a, b); //未声明sub的函数原型
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wimplicit -c test_implicit.c
test_implicit.c:7: warning: return type defaults to `int'
test_implicit.c: In function `test':
test_implicit.c:18: warning: implicit declaration of function `sub'

[-Wmissing-braces]
当聚合类型或者数组变量的初始化表达式没有'充分'用括号{}括起时,给出警告。文字表述很难理解,举例说明则清晰些。看下面的例子:

e.g.
/*
 * test_missing_braces.c
 */
struct point {
        int     x;
        int     y;
};

struct line {
        struct point start;
        struct point end;
};

typedef struct line line;

int main() {
        int     array1[2][2]    = {11, 12, 13, 14};
        int     array2[2][2]    = {{11, 12}, {13, 14}}; // ok
        line    l1              = {1, 1, 2, 2};
        line    l2              = {{2, 2}, {3, 3}}; // ok

        return 0;
}

gcc -Wmissing-braces test_missing_braces.c
test_missing_braces.c: In function `main':
test_missing_braces.c:19: warning: missing braces around initializer
test_missing_braces.c:19: warning: (near initialization for `array1[0]')
test_missing_braces.c:21: warning: missing braces around initializer
test_missing_braces.c:21: warning: (near initialization for `l1.start')

[-Wparentheses]
这是一个很有用的警告选项,它能帮助你从那些看起来语法正确但却由于操作符优先级或者代码结构'障眼'而导致错误运行的代码中解脱出来。好长的一个长句,还是看例子理解吧!:)

e.g.
/*
 * test_parentheses.c
 * gcc -Wparentheses  test_parentheses.c
 */
#include

int main() {
        int     a       = 1;
        int     b       = 1;
        int     c       = 1;
        int     d       = 1;

        if (a && b || c) { // 人们很难记住逻辑操作符的操作顺序,所以编译器建议加上()
                ;
       
}

        if (a == 12)
                if (b)
                        d = 9; 
        else
                d = 10; //从代码的缩进上来看,这句仿佛是if (a == 12)的else分支

        printf("the d is %d\n", d); //期待d = 10, 而结果却是1
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wparentheses test_parentheses.c
test_parentheses.c: In function `main':
test_parentheses.c:13: warning: suggest parentheses around && within ||
test_parentheses.c:17: warning: suggest explicit braces to avoid ambiguous `else'

输出:
the d is 1

[-Wsequence-point]
关于顺序点(sequence point),在C标准中有解释,不过很晦涩。我们在平时编码中尽量避免写出与实现相关、受实现影响的代码便是了。而-Wsequence-point选项恰恰可以帮我们这个忙,它可以帮我们查出这样的代码来,并给出其警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_sequence_point.c
 * gcc -Wsequence-point test_sequence_point.c
 */

#include

int main() {
        int     i = 12;
        i = i–;
        printf("the i is %d\n", i);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wsequence-point test_sequence_point.c
test_sequence_point.c: In function `main':
test_sequence_point.c:10: warning: operation on `i' may be undefined

在两个平台上给出的编译警告都是一致的,但是输出结果却大相径庭。

Solaris输出:
the i is 11

Windows输出:
the i is 12

类似的像这种与顺序点相关的代码例子有:
i = i++;
a[i] = b[i++]
a[i++] = i
等等…

[-Wswitch]
这个选项的功能浅显易懂,通过文字描述也可以清晰的说明。当以一个枚举类型(enum)作为switch语句的索引时但却没有处理default情况,或者没有处理所有枚举类型定义范围内的情况时,该选项会给处警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_switch1.c
 */
enum week {
        SUNDAY,
        MONDAY,
        TUESDAY /* only an example , we omitted the others */
};

int test1() {
        enum week       w       = SUNDAY;
        switch(w) {
                case SUNDAY:
                        break; // without default or the other case handlings
        };

        return 0;
}

int test2() { // Ok, won't invoke even a warning
        enum week       w       = SUNDAY;
        switch(w) {
                case SUNDAY:
                        break;
                default:
                        break;               
        };

        return 0;
}

int test3() { // Ok, won't invoke even a warning
        enum week       w       = SUNDAY;
        switch(w) {
                case SUNDAY:
                        break;
                case MONDAY:
                        break;
                case TUESDAY:
                        break;            
        };

        return 0;
}

gcc -Wswitch -c test_switch.c
test_switch.c: In function `test1':
test_switch.c:16: warning: enumeration value `MONDAY' not handled in switch
test_switch.c:16: warning: enumeration value `TUESDAY' not handled in switch

[-Wunused]
-Wunused是-Wunused-function、-Wunused-label、-Wunused-variable、-Wunused-value选项的集合,-Wunused-parameter需单独使用。
(1) -Wunused-function用来警告存在一个未使用的static函数的定义或者存在一个只声明却未定义的static函数,参见下面例子中的func1和func2;
(2) -Wunused-label用来警告存在一个使用了却未定义或者存在一个定义了却未使用的label,参加下面例子中的func3和func7;
(3) -Wunused-variable用来警告存在一个定义了却未使用的局部变量或者非常量static变量;参见下面例子中func5和var1;
(4) -Wunused-value用来警告一个显式计算表达式的结果未被使用;参见下面例子中func6
(5) -Wunused-parameter用来警告一个函数的参数在函数的实现中并未被用到,参见下面例子中func4。

下面是一个综合的例子
e.g.
/*
 * test_unused.c
 */
static void func1(); //to prove function used but never defined
static void func2(); //to prove function defined but not used
static void func3(); //to prove label used but never defined
static void func7(); //to prove label defined but never used
static void func4(int a); //to prove parameter declared but not used
static void func5(); //to prove local variable defined but not used
static void func6(); //to prove value evaluated but not used

static int var1;

void test() {
        func1();
        func3();
        func4(4);
        func5();
        func6();
}

static void func2() {
        ; // do nothing
}

static void func3() {
        goto over;
}

static void func4(int a) {
        ; // do nothing
}

static void func5() {
        int     a = 0;
}

static void func6() {
        int     a = 0;
        int     b = 6;
        a + b;
}

gcc -Wunused-parameter -c test_unused.c //如果不是用-Wunused-parameter,则func4函数将不被警告。
test_unused.c: In function `func3':
test_unused.c:30: label `over' used but not defined
test_unused.c: In function `func7':
test_unused.c:35: warning: deprecated use of label at end of compound statement
test_unused.c:34: warning: label `over' defined but not used
test_unused.c: In function `func4':
test_unused.c:37: warning: unused parameter `a'
test_unused.c: In function `func5':
test_unused.c:42: warning: unused variable `a'
test_unused.c: In function `func6':
test_unused.c:48: warning: statement with no effect
test_unused.c: At top level:
test_unused.c:6: warning: `func1' used but never defined
test_unused.c:25: warning: `func2' defined but not used
test_unused.c:14: warning: `var1' defined but not used

[-Wuninitialized]
该警告选项用于检查一个局部自动变量在使用之前是否已经初始化了或者在一个longjmp调用可能修改一个non-volatile automatic variable时给出警告。目前编译器还不是那么smart,所以对有些可以正确按照程序员的意思运行的代码还是给出警告。而且该警告选项需要和'-O'选项一起使用,否则你得不到任何uinitialized的警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_uninitialized.c
 */
int test(int y) {
        int     x;

        switch (y) {
                case 1:
                        x = 11;
                        break;
                case 2:
                        x = 22;
                        break;
                case 3:
                        x = 33;
                        break;
        }

        return x;
}

gcc -Wuninitialized -O -c test_uninitialized.c
test_uninitialized.c: In function `test':
test_uninitialized.c:6: warning: `x'
might be used uninitialized in this function

2、非-Wall集合警告选项
以下讨论的这些警告选项并不包含在-Wall中,需要程序员显式添加。

[-Wfloat-equal]
该项用来检查浮点值是否出现在相等比较的表达式中。

e.g.
/*
 * test_float_equal.c
 */

void test(int i) {
        double  d = 1.5;
        if (d == i) {
                ;
        }
}

gcc -Wfloat-equal -c test_float_equal.c
test_float_equal.c: In function `test':
test_float_equal.c:8: warning: comparing floating point with == or != is unsafe

[-Wshadow]
当局部变量遮蔽(shadow)了参数、全局变量或者是其他局部变量时,该警告选项会给我们以警告信息。

e.g.
/*
 * test_shadow.c
 */
int     g;

void test(int i) {
        short   i;
        double  g;
}

gcc -Wshadow -c test_shadow.c
test_shadow.c: In function `test':
test_shadow.c:9: warning: declaration of `i' shadows a parameter
test_shadow.c:10: warning: declaration of `g' shadows a global declaration
test_shadow.c:6: warning: shadowed declaration is here

[-Wbad-function-cast]
当函数(准确地说应该是函数返回类型)被转换为非匹配类型时,均产生警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_bad_func_case.c
 */
int add(int a, int b) {
        return a+b;
}

void test() {
        char *p = (char*)add(1, 13);
}

gcc -Wbad-function-cast -c test_bad_func_case.c
test_bad_func_case.c: In function `test':
test_bad_func_case.c:11: warning: cast does not match function type

[-Wcast-qual]
当去掉修饰源Target的限定词(如const)时,给出警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_cast_qual.c
 */
void test() {
        char            c       = 0;
        const char      *p      = &c;
        char            *q;

        q = (char*)p;
}

gcc -Wcast-qual -c test_cast_qual.c
test_cast_qual.c: In function `test':
test_cast_qual.c:10: warning: cast discards qualifiers from pointer target type

[-Wcast-align]
这是个非常有用的选项,特别是对于在Solaris这样的对内存对齐校验的平台尤其重要。它用于在从对齐系数小的地址(如char*)转换为对齐系数大的地址(如int*)转换时给出警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_cast_align.c
 */
#include
int main() {
        char    c = 1;
        char    *p = &c; //ok
        int     *q = (int*)p; //bad align-cast
        printf("the *q is %d\n", *q);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wcast-align test_cast_align.c
test_cast_align.c: In function `main':
test_cast_align.c:9: warning: cast increases required alignment of target type

输出:
总线错误 ((主存储器)信息转储) //on Solaris 9

[-Wsign-compare]
在有符号数和无符号数进行值比较时,有符号数可能在比较之前被转换为无符号数而导致结果错误。使用该选项会对这样的情况给出警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_sign_compare.c
 */
#include

int main() {
        unsigned int    i = 128;
        signed int      j = -1;
        if (i < j) {
                printf("i < j\n");
        } else {
                printf("i > j\n");
        }
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wsign-compare test_sign_compare.c
test_sign_compare.c: In function `main':
test_sign_compare.c:10: warning: comparison between signed and unsigned

输出:
i < j

[-Waggregate-return]
如果一个函数返回一个聚合类型,如结构体、联合或者数组,该选项就会给出警告信息。较简单不举例了。

[-Wmultichar]
当我们写下如此代码时:char c = 'peter', 使用该选项会给出警告。这个选项是默认选项,你无需单独使用该选项,不过你可以使用-Wno-multichar来关闭这些警告信息,但是这可是不建议你去做的。对于char c = 'peter'这样的代码的处理是与平台相关,不可移植的。

e.g.
/*
 * test_multichar.c
 */
int main() {
        char c = 'peter';
        printf("c is %c\n", c);
        return 0;
}
但这里在Windows和Solaris平台输出的结果却一致:
c is r

[-Wunreachable-code]
这个选项是一个检查冗余代码或疏忽代码好办法。它一旦检查到你的代码中有不可达的代码,就会发出警告。这些代码往往会存在潜在的危机。

e.g.
/*
 * test_unreachable.c
 */
int test(char c) {
        if (c < 256) {
                return 0;
        } else {
                return 1;
        }
}

gcc -Wunreachable-code -c test_unreachable.c
test_unreachable.c: In function `test':
test_unreachable.c:6: warning: comparison is always true due to limited range of data type
test_unreachable.c:9: warning: will never be executed

[-Wconvertion]
由于原型定义而引起的定点和浮点数之间的隐式转换(强制转换)或者由有符号数和无符号数之间隐式转换转换引起的警告。

e.g.
/*
 * test_conversion.c
 */
#include

void getdouble(double d) {
        ;       // do nothing
}

int main() {
        unsigned int    k;
        int             n       = 12;

        k = -1;
        k = (unsigned int)-1; // ok, explicit conversion ,no warning

        getdouble(n);
        return 0;
}

gcc -Wconversion test_conversion.c
test_conversion.c: In function `main':
test_conversion.c:15: warning: negative integer implicitly converted to unsigned type
test_conversion.c:18: warning: passing arg 1 of `getdouble' as floating rather than integer due to prototype

3、-Wtraditional和-W
这两个警告选项其实也都是一些组合(大部分都在上面提到过),前者用来在代码中使用了标准C不同于传统C的特性时,发出警告;后者也是针对一些事件打开一个警告集合。关于它们的说明具体可参见'Using the GNU Compiler Collection'。

[注1]
本文中的例子的测试环境为Solaris 9 SPARC平台,GCC-3.2和Windows XP Intel x86平台,mingw32 gcc3.4.2,如无特殊差异,所有注释均针对这两个测试环境。

Kernel 'head.S'

After being decompressed, the kernel image starts with another ‘startup_32′ function included in $(linux-2.6.15.3_dir/arch/i386/kernel/head.S’. This ‘head.S’ is the second one in linux source package, which is also called ‘kernel head’. And it is exactly what we want to describe in this artical.

The kernel head continues to perform higher initialization operations for the first linux process(process 0). It sets up an execution environment for the kernel main routine just like what the operating system does before an application begins to start. There are two entries for CPUs in this ‘head.S’ and we only talk about the execution routine of the boot CPU.

/*
 * ! $(linux2.6.3.15_dir)/arch/i386/kernel/head.S
 */
ENTRY(startup_32)

 /*
  * ! We still use liner address, since
  * ! %ds = %es = %fs = %gs = __BOOT_DS
  * ! we use the third segment which base
  * ! address starts from 0×00000000
  */
 cld
 lgdt boot_gdt_descr – __PAGE_OFFSET
 movl $(__BOOT_DS),%eax
 movl %eax,%ds
 movl %eax,%es
 movl %eax,%fs
 movl %eax,%gs

 /*
  * ! Clear the kernel bss
  */
 xorl %eax,%eax
 movl $__bss_start – __PAGE_OFFSET,%edi
 movl $__bss_stop – __PAGE_OFFSET,%ecx
 subl %edi,%ecx
 shrl $2,%ecx
 rep ; stosl

After copying the bootup parameters, it prepares to enable the paging. Before the paging enabled, some data structure should be loaded first following the ‘Intel Manual Vol3′.

 /*
  * ! Initialize the provisional kernel page tables
  * ! which are stored starting from pg0, right after
  * ! the end of the kernel’s uninitialized data segments(bss).
  * ! and the provisional page global directory is
  * ! contained in the swapper_pg_dir variable.
  * !
  * ! page_pde_offset = 0x0c00
  */
 page_pde_offset = (__PAGE_OFFSET >> 20);

 /*
  * ! this line indicates the table starts from ‘pg0′
  */
 movl $(pg0 – __PAGE_OFFSET), %edi

 /*
  * ! this line told us ‘swapper_pg_dir’ is the
  * ! page directory start point
  */
 movl $(swapper_pg_dir – __PAGE_OFFSET), %edx

 /*
  * ! There were 1024 entries in ‘swapper_pg_dir’
  * ! since the code below:
  * ! ENTRY(swapper_pg_dir)
  * !     .fill 1024,4,0
  * !
  * ! The first mapping:
  * !     both entry 0 and entry 0×300 (page_pde_offset/4) –> pg0
  * !     that is (0×00000000~0x007fffff) —> pg0
  * ! The second mapping:
  * !     both entry 1 and entry 0×301 (page_pde_offset/4+1) –> pg1 (the page following pg0)
  * !     that is (0xC0000000~0xC07fffff) —> pg1
  * !
  * ! The objective of this first phase of paging is to
  * ! allow these 8 MB of RAM to be easily addressed
  * ! both in real mode and protected mode.
  */
 movl $0×007, %eax   /* 0×007 = PRESENT+RW+USER */
10:
 leal 0×007(%edi),%ecx   /* Create PDE entry */
 movl %ecx,(%edx)   /* Store identity PDE entry */
 movl %ecx,page_pde_offset(%edx)  /* Store kernel PDE entry */
 addl $4,%edx
 movl $1024, %ecx
11:
 stosl
 addl $0×1000,%eax
 loop 11b
 /* End condition: we must map up to and including INIT_MAP_BEYOND_END */
 /* bytes beyond the end of our own page tables; the +0×007 is the attribute bits */
 leal (INIT_MAP_BEYOND_END+0×007)(%edi),%ebp
 cmpl %ebp,%eax
 jb 10b
 movl %edi,(init_pg_tables_end – __PAGE_OFFSET)

 /*
  * ! here just the boot CPU go this way
  */
#ifdef CONFIG_SMP
 xorl %ebx,%ebx    /* This is the boot CPU (BSP) */
 jmp 3f

The kernel page tables have been loaded and we can enable the paging now!

 /*
  * Enable paging
  */
 movl $swapper_pg_dir-__PAGE_OFFSET,%eax
 
 /*
  * ! load the table physical address into the %cr3
  */
 movl %eax,%cr3  /* set the page table pointer.. */
 movl %cr0,%eax
 orl $0×80000000,%eax
 
 /*
  * ! Enable the paging
  */
 movl %eax,%cr0  /* ..and set paging (PG) bit */
 
 /*
  * ! A relative jump after the paging enabled
  */
 ljmp $__BOOT_CS,$1f /* Clear prefetch and normalize %eip */
1:
 /* Set up the stack pointer */
 lss stack_start,%esp

There is a relative jump instruction – ‘ljmp $(__BOOT_CS), $1f’. Maybe you wonder what the ‘$1f’ means. ’1′ is a local symbol. To define a local symbol, write a label of the form ‘N:’ (where N represents any digit). To refer to the most recent previous definition of that symbol write ‘Nb’, using the same digit as when you defined the label. To refer to the next definition of a local label, write ‘Nf’. The ‘b’ stands for "backwards" and the ‘f’ stands for "forwards".  

Now we are in 32-bit protected mode with paging enable. so we still need to re-do something done in 16-bit mode for ‘real-mode’ operations.

 /*
  * ! Setup the interrupt descriptor table
  * ! All the 256 entries are pointing to
  * ! the default interrupt "handler" — ‘ignore_int’
  */
 call setup_idt

 ….
 ….

setup_idt:
 lea ignore_int,%edx
 movl $(__KERNEL_CS << 16),%eax
 movw %dx,%ax  /* selector = 0×0010 = cs */
 movw $0x8E00,%dx /* interrupt gate – dpl=0, present */

 /*
  * ! idt_table varible is defined
  * ! in $(linux2.6.3.15_dir)/arch/i386/kernel/traps.c
  */
 lea idt_table,%edi
 mov $256,%ecx
rp_sidt:
 movl %eax,(%edi)
 movl %edx,4(%edi)
 addl $8,%edi
 dec %ecx
 jne rp_sidt
 ret

After checking the type of CPU, the kernel head prepare to call the kernel main function ‘start_kernel’. 

 /*
  * ! use new descriptor table in safe place
  * ! then reload segment registers after lgdt
  */
 lgdt cpu_gdt_descr
 lidt idt_descr
 ljmp $(__KERNEL_CS),$1f
1: movl $(__KERNEL_DS),%eax # reload all the segment registers
 movl %eax,%ss   # after changing gdt.

 movl $(__USER_DS),%eax  # DS/ES contains default USER segment
 movl %eax,%ds
 movl %eax,%es

 xorl %eax,%eax   # Clear FS/GS and LDT
 movl %eax,%fs
 movl %eax,%gs
 lldt %ax
 cld   # gcc2 wants the direction flag cleared at all times

 …
 …

 /*
  * ! The boot CPU will jump to execute
  * ! $(linux2.6.3.15_dir)/init/main.c:start_kernel()
  * ! And the start_kernel() should never return :)
  */
 call start_kernel
L6:
 jmp L6   # main should never return here, but
    # just in case, we know what happens.

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